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interface?\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"How to define an interface.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"What “implement an interface” means.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The advantages of interfaces\")])])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"technical-concepts-covered\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"2\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"2\")]),_vm._v(\" Technical concepts covered \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#technical-concepts-covered\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Interface\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Concrete implementation\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"To implement an interface\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The method set of an interface.\")])])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"introduction\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"3\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"3\")]),_vm._v(\" Introduction \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#introduction\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Interfaces seem difficult to understand when you just start programming. Often new programmers do not fully understand the potential of interfaces. This section aims to explain what an interface is, why it is interesting, and how to create interfaces.\")]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"a-basic-definition-of-an-interface\"}}),_c('BuyCopyInvite'),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"4\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"4\")]),_vm._v(\" A basic definition of an interface \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#a-basic-definition-of-an-interface\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"An interface is a \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"contract\")]),_vm._v(\" that defines a set of behaviors.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Interfaces are \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"a pure object of design\")]),_vm._v(\" they just define a set of behaviors (ie. Methods) \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"without giving any implementation\")]),_vm._v(\" of those behaviors.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"An interface \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"is a kind of type\")]),_vm._v(\" that defines a set of methods without implementing them\")])])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"“To Implement” = “To write the code of the method” Here is an example interface type (from the standard package \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"io\")])]),_vm._v(\"):\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type Reader interface {\\n Read(p []byte) (n int, err error)\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Here we have an interface type named \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Reader\")])]),_vm._v(\". It specifies one method named \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Read\")])]),_vm._v(\". The method has no body, no implementation. The only thing specified is the method name and its signature (parameters and results).\")]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"zero-value-of-an-interface-type\"}}),_c('h4',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"4.0.0.1\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"4.0.0.1\")]),_vm._v(\" Zero value of an interface type \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#zero-value-of-an-interface-type\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The zero value of the interface type is \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"nil\")])]),_vm._v(\". Example :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"var r io.Reader\\nlog.Println(r)\\n// 2021/02/02 20:27:52 \")])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"basic-example\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"5\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"5\")]),_vm._v(\" Basic Example \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#basic-example\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type Human struct {\\n Firstname string\\n Lastname string\\n Age int\\n Country string\\n}\\n\\ntype DomesticAnimal interface {\\n ReceiveAffection(from Human)\\n GiveAffection(to Human)\\n}\")])]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"First, we declare a type named \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Human\")])])])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The we declare a new type interface named \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\".\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"This type interface has a method set composed of two methods : \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"ReceiveAffection\")])]),_vm._v(\" and \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"GiveAffection\")])]),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\".\")])])])]),_c('p',[_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\" is a contract.\")]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_vm._v(\"It signals to the developer that to be a \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\" we need to have at least two behaviors: \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"ReceiveAffection\")])]),_vm._v(\" and \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"GiveAffection\")])])])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Let’s create two types :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type Cat struct {\\n Name string\\n}\\n\\ntype Dog struct {\\n Name string\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"We have two new types. To make them \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"respect the contract\")]),_vm._v(\" of our interface \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\", we have to define for each type the methods dictated by the interface.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Let’s begin with the \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"Cat\")]),_vm._v(\" type :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"func (c Cat) ReceiveAffection(from Human) {\\n fmt.Printf(\\\"The cat named %s has received affection from Human named %s\\\\n\\\", c.Name, from.Firstname)\\n}\\n\\nfunc (c Cat) GiveAffection(to Human) {\\n fmt.Printf(\\\"The cat named %s has given affection to Human named %s\\\\n\\\", c.Name, to.Firstname)\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Now the type \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Cat\")])]),_vm._v(\" implements the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\" \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"interface\")]),_vm._v(\". We do the same now for the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Dog\")])]),_vm._v(\" type :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"func (d Dog) ReceiveAffection(from Human) {\\n fmt.Printf(\\\"The dog named %s has received affection from Human named %s\\\\n\\\", d.Name, from.Firstname)\\n}\\n\\nfunc (d Dog) GiveAffection(to Human) {\\n fmt.Printf(\\\"The dog named %s has given affection to Human named %s\\\\n\\\", d.Name, to.Firstname)\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Our \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Dog\")])]),_vm._v(\" type implements now correctly the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\" \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"interface.\")]),_vm._v(\" Now we can create a function that takes an interface has a parameter :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"func Pet(animal DomesticAnimal, human Human) {\\n animal.GiveAffection(human)\\n animal.ReceiveAffection(human)\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"This function can take any type that implements the type interface \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\" as parameter. Therefore we do not have to create specific functions for cats, dogs, snakes, rats.… This function is generic and can be executed for different types :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"func Pet(animal DomesticAnimal, human Human) {\\n animal.GiveAffection(human)\\n animal.ReceiveAffection(human)\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Pet\")])]),_vm._v(\" function takes a \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\" type interface as a first parameter and an \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Human\")])]),_vm._v(\" as a second parameter.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Inside the function, we call the two functions of the interface.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Let’s use this function :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"// interfaces/first-example/main.go \\n//...\\n\\nfunc main() {\\n\\n // Create the Human\\n var john Human\\n john.Firstname = \\\"John\\\"\\n\\n\\n // Create a Cat\\n var c Cat\\n c.Name = \\\"Maru\\\"\\n\\n // then a dog\\n var d Dog\\n d.Name = \\\"Medor\\\"\\n\\n Pet(c, john)\\n Pet(d,john)\\n}\")])]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The types \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Dog\")])]),_vm._v(\" and \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Cat\")])]),_vm._v(\" \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"implement\")]),_vm._v(\" the methods of the interface \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])])])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"=> any variable of type \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Dog\")])]),_vm._v(\" and \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Cat\")])]),_vm._v(\" \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"can be seen as\")]),_vm._v(\" a \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])])])])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"the-compiler-is-watching-you\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"6\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"6\")]),_vm._v(\" The compiler is watching you! \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#the-compiler-is-watching-you\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Respecting the interface contract for a type \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"T\")]),_vm._v(\" means implementing all methods of the interface. Let’s try to fool the compiler to see what happens :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"// ...\\n// let's create a concrete type Snake\\ntype Snake struct {\\n Name string\\n}\\n// we do not implement the methods ReceiveAffection and GiveAffection intentionally\\n//...\\n\\n\\nfunc main(){\\n\\n var snake Snake\\n snake.Name = \\\"Joe\\\"\\n\\n Pet(snake, john)\\n}\")])]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"We create a new type \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Snake\")])])])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"This type does not implement any methods of the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\" animal\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"In the main function, we create a new variable of type \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Snake\")])])])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"We then call the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Pet\")])]),_vm._v(\" function with this variable as first parameter.\")])])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"It does not compile :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"./main.go:70:5: cannot use snake (type Snake) as type DomesticAnimal in argument to Pet:\\n Snake does not implement DomesticAnimal (missing GiveAffection method)\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The compiler stops at the first method in alphabetical order that is not implemented.\")]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"example-databasesqldriver.driver\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"7\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"7\")]),_vm._v(\" Example : \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"database/sql/driver.Driver\")])]),_vm._v(\" \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#example-databasesqldriver.driver\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Let’s take a look at the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Driver\")])]),_vm._v(\" interface (from the package \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"database/sql/driver\")])]),_vm._v(\")\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type Driver interface {\\n Open(name string) (Conn, error)\\n}\")])]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Different sorts of SQL databases exist, so there are several implementations of the method \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Open\")])]),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\".\")])])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Why? Because you will not use the same code to initiate a connection to a MySQL database and an Oracle database.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"By building an interface, you define a contract that several implementations can use.\")])])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"interface-embedding\"}}),_c('BuyCopyInvite'),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"8\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"8\")]),_vm._v(\" Interface embedding \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#interface-embedding\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"You can \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"embed\")]),_vm._v(\" interfaces into other interfaces. Let’s take an example :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"// the Stringer type interface from the standard library\\ntype Stringer interface {\\n String() string\\n}\\n// A homemade interface\\ntype DomesticAnimal interface {\\n ReceiveAffection(from Human)\\n GiveAffection(to Human)\\n // embed the interface Stringer into the DomesticAnimal interface\\n Stringer\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"In the previous listing, we embed the interface \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Stringer\")])]),_vm._v(\" into the interface \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\".\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"As a consequence, the other types that already implement \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\" have to implement the methods of the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"DomesticAnimal\")])]),_vm._v(\" interface.\")]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"With interface embedding, you can add functionality to your interfaces without duplication.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"It also comes at a cost; if you embed an interface from another module, your code will be coupled with it\")]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"A change in the other module interface will force you to rewrite your code.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Note that this danger is moderated if the dependant module follow the semantic versioning scheme\"),_c('a',{staticClass:\"footnote-ref\",attrs:{\"href\":\"#fn1\",\"id\":\"fnref1\",\"role\":\"doc-noteref\"}},[_c('sup',[_vm._v(\"1\")])])])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"You can use interfaces from the standard library without fear\")])])])])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"some-useful-and-famous-interfaces-from-the-standard-library\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"9\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"9\")]),_vm._v(\" Some useful (and famous) interfaces from the standard library \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#some-useful-and-famous-interfaces-from-the-standard-library\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"error-interface\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"9.1\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"9.1\")]),_vm._v(\" Error interface \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#error-interface\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type error interface {\\n Error() string\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"This interface type is intensively used. Functions or methods that can fail return an \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"error\")])]),_vm._v(\" type interface :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"func (c *Communicator) SendEmailAsynchronously(email *Email) error {\\n //...\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"To create an error, we usually call : \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"fmt.Errorf()\")])]),_vm._v(\" which returns a result of type \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"error\")])])]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_vm._v(\"or \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"errors.New()\")])])])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Of course, it’s possible to create your type that implements the error interface.\")]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"fmt.stringer-interface\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"9.2\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"9.2\")]),_vm._v(\" fmt.Stringer interface \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#fmt.stringer-interface\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type Stringer interface {\\n String() string\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"With the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Stringer\")])]),_vm._v(\" interface, you can define how a type will be printed as a \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"string\")])]),_vm._v(\", when a printing method is called (\"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"fmt.Errorf(),fmt.Println, fmt.Printf, fmt.Sprintf\")])]),_vm._v(\"...)\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Here is an example implementation\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type Human struct {\\n Firstname string\\n Lastname string\\n Age int\\n Country string\\n}\\n\\nfunc (h Human) String() string {\\n return fmt.Sprintf(\\\"human named %s %s of age %d living in %s\\\",h.Firstname,h.Lastname,h.Age,h.Country)\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Human implements now \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Stringer\")])]),_vm._v(\":\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"// interfaces/stringer/main.go \\npackage main \\n\\nfunc main() {\\n var john Human\\n john.Firstname = \\\"John\\\"\\n john.Lastname = \\\"Doe\\\"\\n john.Country = \\\"USA\\\"\\n john.Age = 45\\n\\n fmt.Println(john)\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Outputs :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"human named John Doe of age 45 living in the USA\")])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"sort.interface\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"9.3\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"9.3\")]),_vm._v(\" sort.Interface \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#sort.interface\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"By implementing this interface on a type, you can sort the elements of a type (usually, the underlying type is a slice)\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type Interface interface {\\n Len() int\\n Less(i, j int) bool\\n Swap(i, j int)\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Here is an example usage (source :sort/example_interface_test.go) :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type Person struct {\\n Age int\\n}\\n// ByAge implements sort.Interface for []Person based on\\n// the Age field.\\ntype ByAge []Person\\n\\nfunc (a ByAge) Len() int { return len(a) }\\nfunc (a ByAge) Swap(i, j int) { a[i], a[j] = a[j], a[i] }\\nfunc (a ByAge) Less(i, j int) bool { return a[i].Age < a[j].Age }\")])]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The type \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"ByAge\")])]),_vm._v(\" implements the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"sort.Interface\")])]),_vm._v(\".\")]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_vm._v(\"The underlying type is a slice of \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Person\")])])])])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The interface is composed of three methods :\")]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Len() int\")])]),_vm._v(\" : should return the number of elements inside the collection\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Less(i, j int) bool\")])]),_vm._v(\" : returns \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"true\")])]),_vm._v(\" if the element at index \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"i\")])]),_vm._v(\" should be sorted before the element at index \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"j\")])])])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Swap(i, j int)\")])]),_vm._v(\" : should swap the elements at index \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"i\")])]),_vm._v(\" & \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"j\")])]),_vm._v(\"; in other words, we should put the element at index \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"j\")])]),_vm._v(\" at index \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"i\")])]),_vm._v(\", and the element at index \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"i\")])]),_vm._v(\" should be put at index \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"j\")])]),_vm._v(\".\")])])])])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"We can then sort a variable of type \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"ByAge\")])]),_vm._v(\" with the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"sort.Sort\")])]),_vm._v(\" function\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"// interfaces/sort/main.go \\n\\nfunc main() {\\n people := []Person{\\n {\\\"Bob\\\", 31},\\n {\\\"John\\\", 42},\\n {\\\"Michael\\\", 17},\\n {\\\"Jenny\\\", 26},\\n }\\n\\n sort.Sort(ByAge(people))\\n}\")])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"implicit-implementation\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"10\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"10\")]),_vm._v(\" Implicit implementation \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#implicit-implementation\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Interfaces are \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"implicitly\")]),_vm._v(\" implemented. When you declare a type you do not have to specify which interfaces it implements.\")]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"php-and-java\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"11\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"11\")]),_vm._v(\" PHP and JAVA \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#php-and-java\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"In other languages, you have to specify the interface implementations.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Here is an example in Java :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"// JAVA\\npublic class Cat implements DomesticAnimal{\\n public void receiveAffection(){\\n //...\\n }\\n public void giveAffection(){\\n //..\\n }\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Here is another example in PHP\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"//PHP\\n\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"In those two languages, we have \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"classes\")]),_vm._v(\". You can see that you have to add the term “\"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"implements\")]),_vm._v(\"” when you declare a class that implements an interface.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"You might ask how the Go runtime handles those implicit interface implementations. We will try to draw an explanation of the mechanism of interface values.\")]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"the-empty-interface\"}}),_c('BuyCopyInvite'),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"12\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"12\")]),_vm._v(\" The empty interface \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#the-empty-interface\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Go’s empty interface is the simplest and smaller interface you can write. Its method set is composed of exactly 0 methods.\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"interface {}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"That being said, every type implement the empty interface. You might ask why such a boring interface is interesting. By definition, an empty interface value can hold values of any type. It’s useful if you want to build a method that accepts any type.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Let’s take some examples from the standard library.\")]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_vm._v(\"In the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"log\")])]),_vm._v(\" package you have a \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Fatal\")])]),_vm._v(\" method that takes as input variables of any type :\")])]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"func (l *Logger) Fatal(v ...interface{}) { }\")])]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_vm._v(\"In the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"fmt\")])]),_vm._v(\" package, we also have many methods that take as input an empty interface. For instance the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Printf\")])]),_vm._v(\" function :\")])]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"func Printf(format string, a ...interface{}) (n int, err error) { }\")])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"type-switch\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"12.1\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"12.1\")]),_vm._v(\" Type switch \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#type-switch\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"A function that accepts an empty interface as a parameter generally needs to know its input parameter’s effective type.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"To do so, the function can use a “type switch”, this is a switch case that will compare a type instead of a value.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Here is an example taken from the standard library (file \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"runtime/error.go\")])]),_vm._v(\", package \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"runtime\")])]),_vm._v(\") :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"// printany prints an argument passed to panic.\\n// If panic is called with a value that has a String or Error method,\\n// it has already been converted into a string by preprintpanics.\\nfunc printany(i interface{}) {\\n switch v := i.(type) {\\n case nil:\\n print(\\\"nil\\\")\\n case bool:\\n print(v)\\n case int:\\n print(v)\\n case int8:\\n print(v)\\n case int16:\\n print(v)\\n case int32:\\n print(v)\\n case int64:\\n print(v)\\n case uint:\\n print(v)\\n case uint8:\\n print(v)\\n case uint16:\\n print(v)\\n case uint32:\\n print(v)\\n case uint64:\\n print(v)\\n case uintptr:\\n print(v)\\n case float32:\\n print(v)\\n case float64:\\n print(v)\\n case complex64:\\n print(v)\\n case complex128:\\n print(v)\\n case string:\\n print(v)\\n default:\\n printanycustomtype(i)\\n }\\n}\")])]),_c('figure',[_c('b-img',{staticClass:\"img-book\",attrs:{\"src\":require('@/assets/images/switch_cases_syntax.png'),\"alt\":\"Type switch syntax\",\"fluid\":\"\",\"thumbnail\":\"\"}}),_c('figcaption',{attrs:{\"aria-hidden\":\"true\"}},[_vm._v(\"Type switch syntax\")])],1),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"about-the-usage-of-the-empty-interface\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"12.2\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"12.2\")]),_vm._v(\" About the usage of the empty interface \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#about-the-usage-of-the-empty-interface\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"You should use the empty interface very carefully.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Use the empty interface when you have no other choices.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The empty interface \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"gives no information\")]),_vm._v(\" to the person who will use your functions or methods, hence they will have to refer to the documentation, which can be frustrating.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"If you accept an empty interface, your function/method will have to check the input type, making the code more complex.\")])])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Which method do you prefer?\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"func (c Cart) ApplyCoupon(coupon Coupon) error {\\n //...\\n}\\n\\nfunc (c Cart) ApplyCoupon2(coupon interface{}) (interface{},interface{}) {\\n //...\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The method \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"ApplyCoupon\")])]),_vm._v(\" strictly specify the type that it will accept and return. Whereas \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"ApplyCoupon2\")])]),_vm._v(\" does not specify its types in input and output. As a caller, it is more difficult to use \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"ApplyCoupon2\")])]),_vm._v(\" compared to \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"ApplyCoupon\")])]),_vm._v(\".\")]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"application-cart-storage\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"13\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"13\")]),_vm._v(\" Application: Cart storage \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#application-cart-storage\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"specification\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"13.1\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"13.1\")]),_vm._v(\" Specification \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#specification\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"You build an e-commerce website; you have to store and retrieve customer carts. The three following behaviors have to be developed :\")]),_c('ol',{attrs:{\"type\":\"1\"}},[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Get a cart by its ID\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Put a cart in the database\")])])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Propose an interface for those two behaviors.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Create also a type that implements those two interfaces. (Do not implement the logic in the method.)\")]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"solution\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"13.2\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"13.2\")]),_vm._v(\" Solution \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#solution\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Here is a proposed interface :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"// interfaces/application/main.go \\n\\ntype CartStore interface {\\n GetById(ID string) (*cart.Cart, error)\\n Put(cart *cart.Cart) (*cart.Cart, error)\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"A type that implements the interface :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type CartStoreMySQL struct{}\\n\\nfunc (c *CartStoreMySQL) GetById(ID string) (*cart.Cart, error) {\\n // implement me\\n}\\n\\nfunc (c *CartStoreMySQL) Put(cart *cart.Cart) (*cart.Cart, error) {\\n // implement me\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"And another type that implements the interface :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type CartStorePostgres struct{}\\n\\nfunc (c *CartStorePostgres) GetById(ID string) (*cart.Cart, error) {\\n // implement me\\n}\\n\\nfunc (c *CartStorePostgres) Put(cart *cart.Cart) (*cart.Cart, error) {\\n // implement me\\n}\")])]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"You can create a specific implementation for each model of database you use\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Adding support for a new database engine is easy ! You just have to create a new type that implements the interface.\")])])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"why-should-you-use-interfaces\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"14\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"14\")]),_vm._v(\" Why should you use interfaces? \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#why-should-you-use-interfaces\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"evolutivity\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"14.1\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"14.1\")]),_vm._v(\" Evolutivity \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#evolutivity\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"When you use interfaces as input in your methods or functions, you design your program to be evolutive. Future developers (or a future you) can create new implementations without changing large portions of code.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Imagine that you built an application that performs database reads, insert, and updates. You can use two design approaches :\")]),_c('ol',{attrs:{\"type\":\"1\"}},[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Create a type and methods that are closely linked to the database engine you are using now.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Create an interface that lists all the operations and a concrete implementation for your database engine.\")])])]),_c('ul',[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"In the first approach, you create methods that will take as parameter a specific implementation.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"By doing so, you lock the program to one implementation\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"In the second approach, you create methods that accept an interface.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Changing the implementation is as easy as creating a new type that implements the interface\")])])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"improve-teamwork\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"14.2\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"14.2\")]),_vm._v(\" Improve teamwork \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#improve-teamwork\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Teams can also benefit from interfaces.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"When building a functionality, it often takes more than one developer to do the job. If the job requires code written by two teams to interact, they can agree on one or several interfaces.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"The two sets of developers can then work on their code and use the interface agreed. They can even mock the work of the other team. By doing so, the team is not blocked by the other.\")]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"benefit-from-a-set-of-routines\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"14.3\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"14.3\")]),_vm._v(\" Benefit from a set of routines \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#benefit-from-a-set-of-routines\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"When you implement interfaces on your custom type, you can use additional functionalities that do not need to be developed. Let’s take an example from the standard library: the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"sort\")])]),_vm._v(\" package. This is not a surprise; this package is used to... sort things. Here is an extract of the go source code :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"// go v.1.10.1\\npackage sort\\n//..\\n\\ntype Interface interface {\\n // Len is the number of elements in the collection.\\n Len() int\\n // Less reports whether the element with\\n // index i should sort before the element with index j.\\n Less(i, j int) bool\\n // Swap swaps the elements with indexes i and j.\\n Swap(i, j int)\\n}\\n\\n// Sort sorts data.\\n// It makes one call to data.Len to determine n, and O(n*log(n)) calls to\\n// data.Less and data.Swap. The sort is not guaranteed to be stable.\\nfunc Sort(data Interface) {\\n n := data.Len()\\n quickSort(data, 0, n, maxDepth(n))\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"On the first line, we declare the current package : \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"sort\")])]),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\".\")]),_vm._v(\" On the next lines, the programmers declared an interface called simply \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Interface\")])]),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\".\")]),_vm._v(\" This interface \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Interface\")])]),_vm._v(\" specifies three methods : \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Len, Less, Swap\")])]),_vm._v(\".\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"On the next lines, the function \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Sort\")])]),_vm._v(\" is declared. It takes as parameter \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"data\")])]),_vm._v(\" that is of type \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Interface\")])]),_vm._v(\". This is a very useful function that will sort the data given.\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"How do we can use this function on one of our types? Implement the interface :\")]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Imagine that you have a type User :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type User struct {\\n firstname string\\n lastname string\\n totalTurnover float64\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"And a type Users that is a slice of \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"User\")])]),_vm._v(\" instances :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type Users []User\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Let’s create an instance of \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Users\")])]),_vm._v(\" and populate it with three variables of type \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"User\")])]),_vm._v(\" \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\":\")])]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"user0 := User{firstname:\\\"John\\\", lastname:\\\"Doe\\\", totalTurnover:1000}\\nuser1 := User{firstname:\\\"Dany\\\", lastname:\\\"Boyu\\\", totalTurnover:20000}\\nuser2 := User{firstname:\\\"Elisa\\\", lastname:\\\"Smith Brown\\\", totalTurnover:70}\\n\\nusers := make([]Users,3)\\nusers[0] = user0\\nusers[1] = user1\\nusers[2] = user2\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"What if we want to sort it by turnover? We can develop from scratch a sorting algorithm that matches our specifications. Or we can just implement the interface needed to use the built-in function.\"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"Sort\")])]),_vm._v(\" from the \"),_c('span',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\",\"style\":\"display: inline\"}},[_vm._v(\"sort\")])]),_vm._v(\" package. Let’s do it :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"// Compute the length of the array. Easy...\\nfunc (users Users) Len() int {\\n return len(users)\\n}\\n\\n// decide which instance is bigger than the other one\\nfunc (users Users) Less(i, j int) bool {\\n return users[i].totalTurnover < users[j].totalTurnover\\n}\\n\\n// swap two elements of the array\\nfunc (users Users) Swap(i, j int) {\\n users[i], users[j] = users[j], users[i]\\n}\")])]),_c('p',[_vm._v(\"By declaring those functions, we can simply use the \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"Sort\")]),_vm._v(\" function :\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"sort.Sort(users)\\nfmt.Println(users)\\n// will output :\\n[{Elisa Smith Brown 70} {John Doe 1000} {Dany Boyu 20000}]\")])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"bits-of-advice\"}}),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"15\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"15\")]),_vm._v(\" Bits of Advice \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#bits-of-advice\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('ol',{attrs:{\"type\":\"1\"}},[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Use the interfaces provided by the Standard library\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"An interface with too many methods is hard to implement (because it requires writing many methods).\")])])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"test-yourself\"}}),_c('BuyCopyInvite'),_c('h1',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"16\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"16\")]),_vm._v(\" Test yourself \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#test-yourself\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"questions\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"16.1\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"16.1\")]),_vm._v(\" Questions \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#questions\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('ol',{attrs:{\"type\":\"1\"}},[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Give an example of an interface that embeds another interface.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"True or false? Methods specified in embedded interfaces are \"),_c('strong',[_vm._v(\"not\")]),_vm._v(\" part on an interface method set.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Name two advantages of using interfaces.\")])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"What is the zero value of the interface type?\")])])]),_c('div',{staticClass:\"anchor\",attrs:{\"id\":\"answers\"}}),_c('h2',{attrs:{\"data-number\":\"16.2\"}},[_c('span',{staticClass:\"header-section-number\"},[_vm._v(\"16.2\")]),_vm._v(\" Answers \"),_c('a',{attrs:{\"href\":\"#answers\"}},[_c('b-icon-link45deg',{staticClass:\"heading-link-icon\",attrs:{\"font-scale\":\"0.7\"}})],1)]),_c('ol',{attrs:{\"type\":\"1\"}},[_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"Give an example of an interface that embeds another interface.\")]),_c('pre',{directives:[{name:\"highlightjs\",rawName:\"v-highlightjs\"}]},[_c('code',{pre:true,attrs:{\"class\":\"go\"}},[_vm._v(\"type ReadWriter interface {\\n Reader\\n Writer\\n}\")])])]),_c('li',[_c('p',[_vm._v(\"True or false? 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